REVIEW ARTICLE
The use of artificial intelligence and the intellectual development of adolescents – A literature review
Submission date: 2026-05-03
Acceptance date: 2026-07-08
Publication date: 2026-09-21
Rozprawy Społeczne/Social Dissertations 2026;20(1):194-210
KEYWORDS
intellectual autonomycritical thinkingmetacognitioncognitive offloadingadolescent cognitive developmentartificial intelligence in education
TOPICS
ABSTRACT
Introduction: The aim of this article is to critically synthesize the current state of knowledge
on the relationship between the use of artificial intelligence (AI) tools and the intellectual
development of children and adolescents. The article seeks to answer the question of the
extent to which, in light of existing research, AI tools may serve as cognitive support or as
a substitute for students’ thought processes, and to identify potential relationships and
moderating factors that should be addressed in future empirical, including longitudinal,
research. Material and methods: A narrative literature review method was employed. The
Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar databases were searched using combinations
of keywords in Polish and English. Publications from 2019-2025 were analyzed, with
particular emphasis on works from the last three years. The selection criteria included
the study population (children and adolescents aged 6-18), the educational context, and
the empirical nature of the sources. Results: The literature review indicates an ambivalent character of the relationship
between AI use and the intellectual development of adolescents. On the one hand, AI
systems enable the individualization of learning, support metacognition, and broaden
access to knowledge. On the other hand, research signals that unskillful or excessive use
of these tools co-occurs with excessive cognitive offloading, lower scores in measures
of critical thinking, reduced knowledge retention, diminished intellectual autonomy,
and superficial information processing. The key moderating factors are the manner in
which the technology is used, the student’s age, and the didactic context in which AI is
implemented. Conclusions: The impact of artificial intelligence on the intellectual development of
adolescents is not predetermined by the technology itself, but depends to a large extent on
the pedagogical framework within which it is applied. Given the recency of the phenomenon
and the lack of longitudinal studies, the conclusions formulated here are preliminary and
primarily indicate directions for further research. It is necessary to develop and implement
evidence-based didactic strategies that will maximize the cognitive benefits of AI while
minimizing the risk of weakening independent thinking.
REFERENCES (44)
1.
Alfarwan, A. (2025). Generative AI use in K-12 education: A systematic review. Frontiers in Education, 10, 1647573. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.....
2.
Azevedo, R., Taub, M., Mudrick, N. V. (2018). Using multi-channel trace data to infer and foster self-regulated learning between humans and advanced learning technologies. W: D. H. Schunk, J. A. Greene (red.), Handbook of self-regulation of learning and performance (s. 254-270). Routledge.
3.
Ballestra Caffaratti, L., Longobardi, C., Badenes-Ribera, L., Marengo, D. (2025). AI adoption among adolescents in education: Extending the UTAUT2 with psychological and contextual factors. Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence, 8, 1614993. https://doi.org/10.3389/frai.2....
4.
Bjork, E. L., Bjork, R. A. (2011). Making things hard on yourself, but in a good way: Creating desirable difficulties to enhance learning. W: M. A. Gernsbacher, R. W. Pew, L. M. Hough, J. R. Pomerantz (red.), Psychology and the real world: Essays illustrating fundamental contributions to society (s. 56–64). Worth.
5.
Blakemore, S. J., Choudhury, S. (2006). Development of the adolescent brain: Implications for executive function and social cognition. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47(3-4), 296-312. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469....
6.
Bruner, J. S. (1961). The act of discovery. Harvard Educational Review, 31(1), 21-32.
7.
Charchuła, J. (2024). Uniwersytet w dobie sztucznej inteligencji – szanse i zagrożenia. Horyzonty Wychowania, 23, 79-87.
8.
Craik, F. I. M., Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11(6), 671-684. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-....
9.
Crompton, H., Burke, D. (2023). Artificial intelligence in higher education: The state of the field. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 20(1), 22. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239....
10.
Cropley, D. H., Cropley, A. J. (2023). Creativity and the cyber shock: The ultimate paradox. The Journal of Creative Behavior, 57(4), 485-487. https://doi.org/10.1002/jocb.6....
11.
Deci, E. L., Ryan, R. M. (2000). The „what” and „why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227-268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327....
12.
Doshi, A. R., Hauser, O. P. (2024). Generative AI enhances individual creativity but reduces the collective diversity of novel content. Science Advances, 10(28), eadn5290. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv....
13.
Facione, P. A. (1990). Critical thinking: A statement of expert consensus for purposes of educational assessment and instruction (The Delphi Report). California Academic Press.
14.
Ferrari, R. (2015). Writing narrative style literature reviews. Medical Writing, 24(4), 230-235. https://doi.org/10.1179/204748....
15.
Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive-developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34(10), 906-911. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-0....
16.
Garzón, J., Patiño, E., Marulanda, C. (2025). Systematic review of artificial intelligence in education: Trends, benefits, and challenges. Multimodal Technologies and Interaction, 9(8), 84. https://doi.org/10.3390/mti908....
17.
Gerlich, M. (2025). AI tools in society: Impacts on cognitive offloading and the future of critical thinking. Societies, 15(1), 6. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc150....
18.
Holmes, W., Porayska-Pomsta, K., Holstein, K., Sutherland, E., Baker, T., Shum, S. B., Santos, O. C., Rodrigo, M. T., Cukurova, M., Bittencourt, I. I., Koedinger, K. R. (2022). Ethics of AI in education: Towards a community-wide agenda. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 32(3), 504-526. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40593....
19.
Ignatowski, G., Sułkowski, Ł., Przybyszewski, K., Seliga, R. (2024). Attitudes of Catholic clergies to the application of ChatGPT in unite religious communities. Religions, 15, 980.
20.
Inhelder, B., Piaget, J. (1958). The growth of logical thinking from childhood to adolescence. Basic Books.
21.
Jeziorański, M. (2024). Pedagogical criteria for the adaptation of artificial intelligence to the educational process. Lubelski Rocznik Pedagogiczny, 43, 141-153.
22.
Jose, B., Cherian, J., Verghis, A. M., Varghise, S. M., Mumthas, S., Joseph, S. (2025). The cognitive paradox of AI in education: Between enhancement and erosion. Frontiers in Psychology, 16, 1550621. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.....
23.
Kalisz, M. (2020). Sztuczna inteligencja – osiągnięcia, zagrożenia, perspektywy. Transformacje, 1-2, 156-169.
24.
Klarin, J., Hoff, E. A. L., Larsson, A., Daukantaitė, D. (2024). Adolescents’ use and perceived usefulness of generative AI for schoolwork: Exploring their relationships with executive functioning and academic achievement. Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence, 7, 1415782. https://doi.org/10.3389/frai.2....
25.
Létourneau, A., Deslandes Martineau, M., Charland, P., Karran, J. A., Boasen, J., Léger, P. M. (2025). A systematic review of AI-driven intelligent tutoring systems (ITS) in K-12 education. npj Science of Learning, 10, 29. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41539....
26.
Lin, X., Tan, H. (2025). A systematic review of generative AI in K-12: Mapping goals, activities, roles, and outcomes via the 3P model. Systems, 13(10), 840. https://doi.org/10.3390/system....
27.
Marzano, D. (2026). Generative Artificial Intelligence (GAI) in teaching and learning processes at the K-12 level: A systematic review. Technology, Knowledge and Learning, 31, 789-829. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10758....
28.
Mayer, R. E. (2019). Thirty years of research on online learning. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 33(2), 152-159. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.34....
29.
Michałowski, B. (2018). Internet of Things (IoT) i Artificial Intelligence (AI) w Polsce. Jak wykorzystać rewolucję technologiczną Internetu Rzeczy i Sztucznej Inteligencji w rozwoju Polski. Instytut Sobieskiego. Pobrane z: https://sobieski.org.pl/wp-con... (data dostępu: 31.03.2025).
30.
Munaye, Y. Y., Admass, W., Belayneh, Y., Molla, A., Asmare, M. (2025). ChatGPT in education: A systematic review on opportunities, challenges, and future directions. Algorithms, 18(6), 352. https://doi.org/10.3390/a18060....
31.
Nie, X., Tian, Y., Liu, M., Wu, D., Guo, Y. (2025). The impact of generative artificial intelligence on students’ higher order thinking: Evidence from a three-level meta-analysis. Education and Information Technologies, 30, 25359-25390. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639....
32.
Parasuraman, R., Manzey, D. H. (2010). Complacency and bias in human use of automation: An attentional integration. Human Factors, 52(3), 381-410. https://doi.org/10.1177/001872....
33.
Peláez-Sánchez, I. C., Velarde-Camaqui, D., Glasserman-Morales, L. D. (2024). The impact of large language models on higher education: Exploring the connection between AI and Education 4.0. Frontiers in Education, 9, 1392091. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.....
34.
Piaget, J. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children. International Universities Press.
35.
Risko, E. F., Gilbert, S. J. (2016). Cognitive offloading. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(9), 676-688. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics....
36.
Roediger, H. L., Karpicke, J. D. (2006). Test-enhanced learning: Taking memory tests improves long-term retention. Psychological Science, 17(3), 249-255. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467....
37.
Roll, I., Wylie, R. (2016). Evolution and revolution in artificial intelligence in education. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 26(2), 582-599. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40593....
39.
Tao, S. (2025). Aligning technology with cognitive development: A five-tiered framework to generative AI in K-12 education. AI, Brain and Child, 1, 20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44436....
40.
VanLehn, K. (2011). The relative effectiveness of human tutoring, intelligent tutoring systems, and other tutoring systems. Educational Psychologist, 46(4), 197-221. https://doi.org/10.1080/004615....
41.
Wang, X., Zainuddin, Z., Leng, C. H. (2025). Generative artificial intelligence in pedagogical practices: A systematic review of empirical studies (2022-2024). Cogent Education, 12(1), 2485499. https://doi.org/10.1080/233118....
42.
Warschauer, M., Tseng, W., Yim, S., Webster, T., Jacob, S., Du, Q., Tate, T. (2023). The affordances and contradictions of AI-generated text for writers of English as a second or foreign language. Journal of Second Language Writing, 62, 101071. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw....
43.
Wood, D., Bruner, J. S., Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 17(2), 89-100. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469....
44.
Wygotski, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press.
| eISSN: | 2657-9332 |
We process personal data collected when visiting the website. The function of obtaining information about users and their behavior is carried out by voluntarily entered information in forms and saving cookies in end devices. Data, including cookies, are used to provide services, improve the user experience and to analyze the traffic in accordance with the Privacy policy. Data are also collected and processed by Google Analytics tool (more).
You can change cookies settings in your browser. Restricted use of cookies in the browser configuration may affect some functionalities of the website.
You can change cookies settings in your browser. Restricted use of cookies in the browser configuration may affect some functionalities of the website.
