Employment Statistics by Age Group

Employment data concerning the entire population indicates a notably high youth unemployment rate of 17.6%. This issue is not exclusive to India, as studies by Kannan and Raveendran (2019) and Mehrotra and Parida (2017) reveal a rising unemployment trend at the national level. Within the 15-29 age group, one in every five individuals is unemployed, specifically among those aspiring to secure employment at prevailing market wages. Consequently, the youth in Haryana are experiencing distress due to the challenges posed by unemployment.

The unemployment rate (UR) for youth in India stands at 15.0%, slightly lower than Haryana’s UR. In Punjab and Rajasthan, the youth UR is reported as 18.7% and 13.7%, respectively. Several factors contribute to the high UR, including disparities in capability and wage expectations, mismatches in skill sets versus market requirements, and uneven regional development leading to a higher opportunity cost of jobs due to potential displacement costs. (During 2018-19 and 2019-20), the 4.5% decrease in UR signals a positive trend in the Haryana state economy, but the persistently high youth unemployment remains a significant challenge for policymakers.

Fig. 1

Employment indicators for persons: Haryana (15-29 years age group)

Source: Calculations from PLFS unit-level data.

Moreover, both the labour force participation rate (LFPR) and worker population ratio (WPR) are considerably low in Haryana. In contrast, India records LFPR and WPR at 53.5% and 50.9%, respectively. Over the past three years, WPR has experienced a slight decline (0.3% point) in Haryana for the age group of 15-29 years, signifying economic implications and indicating a dearth of ample job opportunities. The stagnant WPR underscores the labour market distress, as reflected in the overall LFPR figures, particularly the stagnation or decline in LFPR for the youth demographic.

Employment Statistics by Gender

Examining employment patterns across genders reveals that the female labour force participation rate (FLFPR) consistently lags far behind the national average observed in other states. The current figures for 2019-20 depict an alarmingly low FLFPR at 11.9%, which is a cause for concern. Interestingly, the male worker population ratio (WPR) increased by 1.6 percentage points between 2017-18 and 2019-20. During the same period, the unemployment rate (UR) also saw a significant decline of 4.9 percentage points. This gender-based disparity in employment metrics has persisted across all three survey rounds.

Comparatively, in India, the FLFPR stands at 22.8%, still low but nearly double the FLFPR of Haryana. Notably, the remarkably low FLFPR in Haryana significantly impacts the state’s overall labour force participation rate. In Punjab and Rajasthan during the same timeframe, the FLFPR was reported at 18.9% and 28.2%, respectively. The relatively healthier FLFPR in Rajasthan, however, primarily reflects challenging economic conditions in households, compelling female family members to join the workforce despite unfavorable working conditions.

The deduction drawn from the Female Labour Force Participation Rate (FLFPR) in both Haryana and Punjab clearly indicates that as household economic conditions and educational levels improve, the aspirations of females have risen. This, in turn, has led to a heightened demand for better-paying jobs and improved working conditions. Unfortunately, the economies of these states have struggled to generate employment opportunities in organized sectors, particularly in their hinterlands, resulting in the comparatively low FLFPR in Haryana and Punjab, despite their relative prosperity. In contrast, across South Asia, female labour force participation rates range from below 30% in Pakistan, India, and Afghanistan to almost 80% in Nepal and around 60% in Bhutan (Dhar, 2020).

Employment Statistics by Sector (Rural-Urban)

Region-specific employment data indicates significant structural economic changes. In terms of the overall population, the rural Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR) remained at 32.8% in 2019-20, displaying stagnation over the years. In contrast, the LFPR for urban areas increased from 34.5% to 37.2% between 2018-19 and 2019-20. Additionally, rural Worker Population Ratio (WPR) increased by 1.0 percentage point, while urban areas saw a rise of 2.8 percentage points during the study period. Throughout this period, the Unemployment Rate (UR) stabilized at 6.5% in both rural and urban areas. However, the trends suggest that employment opportunities are relatively more abundant in urban Haryana, with the development of urban centers fostering increased job opportunities and a more efficient division of labour, thereby stimulating greater employment, and earning potential, as urban areas should ideally serve as growth engines.

When comparing the LFPR of the entire country, India’s LFPR stands at 40.8% in rural, 38.6% in urban, and 40.1% in rural+urban areas in 2019-20, surpassing Haryana’s figures. Moreover, the UR in rural, urban, and rural+urban India was 4.0%, 7.0%, and 4.8%, respectively, all higher than Haryana’s rates. In Punjab, the UR in rural, urban, and rural+urban areas were reported as 7.2%, 7.7%, and 7.4%, respectively. Similarly, in Rajasthan, the UR in rural, urban, and rural+urban areas in 2019-20 stood at 3.2%, 9.0%, and 4.5%, respectively.

The Urban LFPR for individuals aged 15 years and above increased by 3.2 percentage points, from 45.5% in 2017-18 to 48.7% in 2019-20, while it declined by 1.3 percentage points for the rural region. The Rural WPR remained almost constant, whereas Urban WPR exhibited an increasing trend during the study period. For the youth demographic (15-29 years), the LFPR in rural areas saw a decline of 4.5 percentage points, while it increased by 3.3 percentage points in urban areas.

It is comprehensible that the mechanization of the agriculture sector results in a significant number of workers transitioning away from agriculture. These workers, seeking livelihood opportunities beyond agriculture, encounter limited options in rural areas, especially as education levels improve and households experience relatively stable economic conditions. To facilitate structural transformation, the lure of more job opportunities or a low unemployment rate in urban areas attracts the labour force from rural regions. The migration of workers from rural to urban areas initiates a spill-over effect, fostering development in rural areas and creating additional non-farm jobs. As demonstrated by Boora & Bishnoi (2019), over 2 lakh workers have shifted from agriculture to more productive employment options in non-agricultural sectors since 2011-12. This trend is poised to intensify in the future, and the insufficiency of desirable livelihood options may emerge as a significant political, social, and economic concern in the near future, making it crucial for policymakers to address.

Primary Sector

The primary sector encompasses activities such as agriculture, forestry, fishing, mining, and quarrying, among others. Traditionally, Haryana’s economy has been characterized as agriculture-driven. Table 4 illustrates the distribution of the labour force in the primary sector across various age groups, genders, and regions. According to the PLFS report for 2019-20, approximately 29.3% of workers are engaged in the primary sector, constituting around 27.2 lakh out of approximately 93.1 lakh workers. Within the age group of 15-29 years, about 4.9 lakhs are involved in primary activities out of a total labour force of 25.7 lakhs. The table distinctly indicates a significant departure of rural women in the youth category (15-29 years) from the primary sector during the study period, with their numbers decreasing drastically from 72% to below 29%. This shift is particularly notable for rural young women workers, given their relatively lower absolute numbers. Similarly, the engagement of youth males in the primary sector in rural Haryana has shown a decline, with less than 25% involved in the years 2017-18 and 2018-19. While this figure increased to almost 30% in 2019-20, it appears to be influenced by the economic lockdown induced by the COVID-19 pandemic from late March to June 2020. It is important to note that the PLFS data covers the period from July 1 to June 30, and therefore, the 2019-20 data include the impact of the lockdown on the economy. The notable increase in the number of workers returning to the primary sector reinforces the notion that the primary sector, particularly agriculture, serves as a reserve for the labour force.

In essence, workers involved in the primary sector transition to more lucrative sectors whenever the opportunity arises. This implication holds considerable significance for policy considerations, suggesting that endeavors to generate additional employment opportunities in the primary sector might not yield the desired success. Consequently, achieving higher employment growth in non-agricultural sectors becomes a crucial prerequisite for achieving structural transformation in the economy. Another noteworthy observation from the aforementioned table is that, even in rural areas, only about 45% of the workforce is engaged in the primary sector. This indicates that 55% of workers in rural Haryana actively participate in non-agricultural economic activities, demonstrating that rural Haryana has expanded beyond solely agricultural pursuits. The 6th Economic Census data from 2013-14, the latest available, reveals that approximately 6.48 lakh establishments were operational in rural Haryana, providing employment to nearly 14.64 lakh workers in 2013. Moreover, the growth in employment in such establishments between 2005 (5th EC) and 2013 (6th EC) was recorded at 3.85% per annum (GoI, 2016). The share of urban workers in the primary sector indicates the presence of a small cohort of progressive farmers who have relocated to urban areas but continue to engage in farming. Their increase in percentage from 3.6% to 4.5% in the year 2019-20 is attributed to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, as discussed in the case of rural workers.

Fig. 2

Labour force share classified on sectors: Haryana (15-29 years age)

Source: Calculations from PLFS unit level data.

Examining the employment situation in neighboring states, namely Punjab and Rajasthan, reveals that in rural Punjab, 36.29% of males and 43.72% of females are actively involved in the primary sector. These percentages are comparatively lower than those in Haryana and on a national level. Nationally, 45.84% of workers are engaged in the primary sector. In contrast, both Haryana and Punjab report lower percentages of workers in the primary sector, with figures of 29.25% and 25.76%, respectively. This observation suggests that not only in Haryana but also in Punjab, workers are transitioning from the primary sector to secondary and tertiary sectors, indicating a structural transformation in the state economies. Consequently, policymakers should redirect their strategies to bolster the organized sector in non-agricultural domains, aiming to provide quality employment opportunities to educated and ambitious youth in close proximity to their home regions, thereby minimizing the costs associated with displacement for work-related activities.

Secondary Sector

The secondary sector encompasses manufacturing, electricity, gas, steam, air conditioning supply, water supply, sewerage, waste management, and construction. This sector is pivotal in driving the structural transformation of the economy. The PLFS surveys offer insights into the distribution of the labour force across these sectors at both the state and national levels. Table 5 presents the distribution of the labour force in the secondary sector across various age groups, genders, and regions. The annual report for 2019-20 indicates that approximately 23.39% of workers in India were employed in the secondary sector. In contrast, around 33.2% of workers are engaged in the secondary sector in Haryana, translating to approximately 30.9 lakh out of the total 93.1 lakh workers. Notably, the share of workers in the secondary sector in Haryana was 33.7% in 2017-18, declined to 32.8% in 2018-19, but experienced a slight increase to 33.2% in 2019-20. Analyzing the share of workers in the secondary sector in urban areas of the state reveals a sharp decrease from 44.9% to 40.5% between 2017-18 and 2019-20. In contrast, in rural regions, this share slightly increased from 27.4% to 28.7% during the same period.

We now shift our focus to the age group of 15 years and above, and the trends within this age group mirror those of the overall population. The final age group of interest is individuals aged 15-29. Within this category, approximately 10.7 lakhs are involved in secondary activities out of a total labour force of 25.7 lakhs. Examining year-on-year differences in this age group, the labour force share has decreased from 42.2% in 2018-19 to 39.5% in 2019-20. Overall, the share of workers in the secondary sector in Haryana declined from 41.8% to 39.5% between 2017-18 and 2019-20. Specifically, within the 15-29 age group, the workshare in the urban sector decreased from 54.7% to 43.3%, while in rural regions, it increased from 34.3% to 37.0% from 2017-18 to 2019-20. This trend indicates a reverse migration of workers, particularly youth, from urban to rural areas due to disruptions in economic activities caused by the Covid-19 pandemic. The decline in the share of workers in the secondary sector in Haryana is attributed to the impact of the Covid-19-induced lockdown that affected the economy from March 2020 to June 2020. It is important to note that the PLFS covers the period from July 1 to June 30 in its survey, and the annual report for 2019-20 includes data up to June 30, 2020. While this reduction is viewed as a critical indicator of the Covid-19 impact on the secondary sector in Haryana, it is anticipated to be a temporary phenomenon, with a potential reversal once economic conditions stabilize in the near future.

Fig. 3

Labour force share classified on sectors: Haryana (All year ages)

Source: Calculations from PLFS unit level data.

In contrast to Haryana, its neighboring states, namely Punjab, Rajasthan, and Himachal Pradesh, report that 31.81%, 23.86%, and 22.11% of workers are engaged in the secondary sector, respectively. This suggests that the proportion of workers in the secondary sector in Haryana is relatively higher at 33.2%. This is a positive indication of an evolving economy where workers are transitioning from the less productive primary sector to the more productive secondary sector. Interestingly, at the national level, only 23.39% of workers are involved in the secondary sector. Therefore, the government of Haryana and other stakeholders should capitalize on this opportunity to further enhance the structural transformation of the economy in favor of non-agricultural sectors.

Tertiary Sector

The tertiary sector encompasses wholesale and retail trade, transportation and storage, accommodation and food services activities, information and communication services, financial services and insurance, real estate, professional, scientific and technical services, administrative and supportive services, public administration and defence, education, human health and social work, arts, entertainment and recreation, other side defence services, import-export trade and support activities, activities of extraterritorial organizations and bodies. The PLFS surveys provide insights into the distribution of the labour force across various sectors at both the state and national levels. Table 6 illustrates the labour force share in the tertiary sector across age groups, gender, and regions. According to the annual report for 2019-20, approximately 37.5% of workers are employed in the tertiary sector in Haryana, amounting to around 34.9 lakh workers out of an approximate total of 93.1 lakh. From 2017-18 to 2019-20, the share of workers in the tertiary sector in Haryana exhibited a significant increase from 38.7% in 2017-18 to 40.3% in 2018-19. However, in 2019-20, the Covid-19 pandemic severely impacted the tertiary sector, resulting in a decline in the share of workers to 37.5%. Notably, for all urban workers, the share in the tertiary sector improved from 51.5% to 54.9%.

Conversely, in rural areas, it decreased from 31.6% to 26.8% from 2017-18 to 2019-20. The sudden decrease in the share of workers in the tertiary sector may be attributed to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, and it is expected to normalize in the near future. This implies that the share of workers in the primary sector will likely continue to decline, while it will improve in the secondary and tertiary sectors. Although the tertiary sector serves as the second parking lot for the labour force, academic literature, and empirical evidence from around the world suggest that a declining share of the primary sector is a positive indicator of a maturing economy. In this regard, Haryana is following a well-established path.

Additionally, the current agricultural census (2015-16) indicates that around 18.16 lakh landholdings are being cultivated on 36.4 lakh hectares of land in Haryana, with an average landholding size of 2 hectares. This suggests that the agriculture sector is presently employing a significant number of individuals, and a shift from agriculture is expected to improve the economic conditions of farmers and the overall state agricultural production. Within the youth category (15-29 years), approximately 9.9 lakhs are involved in tertiary activities out of the total labour force of 25.7 lakhs. The proportion of the labour force engaged in the tertiary sector in Haryana has increased from 38.8% in 2017-18 to 41.9% in 2019-20. Interestingly, there appears to be no discernible impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on the employment pattern of youth in the tertiary sector in Haryana. A closer examination reveals a notable increase in the share of urban youth workers in the tertiary sector in the state, rising from 44.8% to 55.2%. However, in rural areas, it has experienced a slight decrease from 35.3% to 33.2% during the period from 2017-18 to 2019-20.

Overall, Haryana’s tertiary sector demonstrates vibrancy by absorbing approximately 37.5% of the state’s labour force, surpassing the shares of the primary and secondary sectors. In comparison, at the all-India level, about 30.37% of the labour force is engaged in the tertiary sector. Other states such as Himachal Pradesh (21.36%), Rajasthan (22.13%), Gujarat (28.71%), Karnataka (33.65%), West Bengal (36.23%), Punjab (42.43%), and Kerala (47.31%) report their respective shares of tertiary sector employment. Consequently, Haryana’s position in this regard is notably impressive, reflecting the sound economic conditions in the state. In addition to the sectoral distribution of the workforce, another equally critical aspect is the educational level of the workforce. Education is generally associated with productivity and income, with higher educational attainments correlating with increased productivity and income. Therefore, we have also examined the educational level of the workforce in Haryana using the PLFS data.

Primary Education Level

The term “primary education level” refers to individuals who have completed up to the 8th class in general education. Those without any formal schooling are not categorized under primary education. In the year 2019-20, among the total workforce of 93.1 lakh, 46.07 lakh individuals (making up 49.5% of the total workforce) have received education up to the primary level. Among this primary-educated workforce, males constitute 80.7%, while females account for only 20.3%. Table 7 outlines employment statistics based on the usual status (ps+ss) for primary education. In rural Haryana, the Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR) has witnessed a significant decrease, dropping from 40% in 2017-18 to 31.8% in 2019-20. This decline is likely attributed to the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic, where lockdown measures led to a reduction in job opportunities. Consequently, rural workers opted to withdraw from the job market, finding the available job offers and market conditions below their expectations. Another factor contributing to this decline could be the relatively high reserve wage of workers who migrated from urban to rural areas during the mid-2020 lockdown. This might have led them to choose to stay out of the labour market, further contributing to the decrease in rural LFPR in 2019-20. Examining the rural LFPR in Haryana reveals a positive trend initially, with male LFPR improving from 66.1% in 2017-18 to 71.8% in 2018-19. However, it witnessed a decline in 2019-20, as previously discussed. In contrast, the rural LFPR for females presents a concerning scenario. Starting just below 13% in 2017-18, it further dropped to an unacceptable level of 7.5% in 2019-20. This extremely low female LFPR in rural Haryana reflects the challenging working conditions for women, limiting opportunities for them to join the workforce.

Empirical evidence indicates that as a household’s economic condition improves, women are often the first to withdraw from the labour market during the initial stages of the development process. The participation of women in the labour market could see improvement if the subsequent phases of development offer quality jobs, uphold the dignity of labour, and provide favourable working conditions. In the case of Haryana, the persistently low female Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR) in rural areas suggests a lack of quality jobs and acceptable working conditions. Unfortunately, these challenging working conditions for women extend to urban areas, as highlighted in the preceding table. Urban LFPR trends in Haryana mirror those in rural areas, with a decline in LFPR for males in 2019-20 and an already low LFPR for females further decreasing during the same period.

Analysing the unemployment rate (UR) over the study period reveals intriguing patterns. In rural areas, the total UR increased from 13.8% in 2017-18 to 21.9% in 2018-19 but surprisingly decreased to 13.1% in 2019-20. Conversely, urban Haryana experienced a more drastic fall in UR, dropping below 3% in 2019-20. Notably, in rural Haryana during 2018-19, male UR rose to 23.9%, while female UR reached its lowest level at 0.4%. Exploring the reasons behind this unusual phenomenon requires a more detailed investigation, especially considering that in 2019-20, rural UR for both males and females returned to the levels of 2017-18 despite disruptions in normal economic activities. It’s worth mentioning that the Labour Force Participation Rate for youth in Punjab (50.9%), Rajasthan (52.0%), Himachal Pradesh (60.6%), and Uttar Pradesh (37.3%) surpasses that of Haryana (35.4%). Therefore, Haryana’s LFPR is comparatively lower than its neighbouring states. This discussion exclusively pertains to the workforce with primary education only.

Secondary Education Level

The classification of the secondary education level pertains to individuals who have acquired education from the 9th to the 12th general education class. In Haryana, a workforce of 28.73 lakh individuals (constituting 30.9% of the total workers in the state) is reported to have employment up to the secondary level. Among these workers, 26.24 lakh are male, and only 2.49 lakh are female, emphasizing the pronounced gender imbalance in the Haryana workforce, as previously discussed.

An examination of the educational profile of the workforce is presented in Table 8, detailing employment statistics for individuals with education beyond the secondary level, categorized by the age groups of 15-29 years and 15 years and above. In the youth age group (15-29 years), the LFPR, WPR, and UR for the year 2019-20 were reported as 32.4%, 26.5%, and 18.1%, respectively. Additionally, the LFPR for males and females in this age group stood at 53.2% and 5.1%, respectively. Over the period from 2017-18 to 2019-20, both LFPR and WPR exhibited an increasing trend for males and females. Furthermore, UR showed a positive trend by decreasing from 22.4% to 18.1%, though it remains relatively high. The UR for males decreased from 19.7% (2017-18) to 17.6% (2019-20), while a significant drop was observed in female UR from 45.9% to 24.2%. Notably, female UR was higher in rural regions (31.4%) compared to urban regions (14.9%) in the 15-29 years age category. Conversely, there was not much deviation in UR for males between rural (17.7%) and urban regions (17.4%) in the same age category.

When comparing Haryana with India and its neighbouring states, India’s Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR) stands at 29.0%, followed by Punjab (35.8%), Rajasthan (25.1%), Himachal Pradesh (50.8%), and Uttar Pradesh (25.9%). Although Haryana’s LFPR (32.4%) is relatively higher than the national average and neighbouring states like Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh, it notably falls below that of Himachal Pradesh. Therefore, the LFPR of youth in Haryana does not meet the desired standards.

Regarding the Unemployment Rate (UR), Haryana’s status is less favourable. Haryana’s UR is higher than its neighbouring states such as Himachal Pradesh (6.9%), Rajasthan (7.4%), and Uttar Pradesh (11.0%). In contrast, Punjab’s UR (24.9%) surpasses that of Haryana (18.1%). The national UR is 13.5%, indicating that Haryana’s UR is comparatively higher for individuals with secondary-level education. In the age category of 15 years and above, LFPR, Worker Population Ratio (WPR), and UR are reported as 46.6%, 42.2%, and 8.2%, respectively. Haryana’s UR (8.2%) is higher than Punjab’s (10.0%), but lower than Himachal Pradesh (2.6%), Uttar Pradesh (4.2%), and Rajasthan (4.0%), as well as the national average (5.8%). Consequently, the UR in Haryana is relatively high for individuals with secondary-level education.

Higher Education Level

Higher education pertains to individuals who have achieved educational levels beyond the 12th grade, including graduation and above. Table 9 illustrates employment statistics for individuals with higher education in two age groups: 15-29 years and 15 years and above. In the youth category (15-29 years), the Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR), Worker Population Ratio (WPR), and Unemployment Rate (UR) were reported as 49.9%, 36.1%, and 27.6%, respectively. The UR for primary, secondary, and higher-educated youth was 9.1%, 18.1%, and 27.6%, respectively. Notably, the highest UR was among higher-educated youths, twice as high as secondary education and three times higher than primary education, indicating a significant unemployment issue. One in three higher-educated youths is unemployed.

Meanwhile, the LFPR for males and females was 70.7% and 24.6%, respectively. From 2017-18 to 2019-20, LFPR for both genders showed a decreasing trend, with marginal WPR decrease for males and improvement for females. Although UR decreased from 33.9% to 27.6%, it remains high. Male UR decreased from 28.2% (2017-18) to 24.7% (2019-20), while female UR sharply declined from 57.2% to 37.7%. Female UR was higher in urban regions (39.9%) than in rural areas (33.2%). Male UR showed minimal deviation between rural (25.0%) and urban regions (24.3%) in the 15-29 years age category. Haryana’s LFPR (49.9%) is lower than India’s (58.8%), and compared to neighbouring states like Punjab (68.9%), Rajasthan (58.3%), and Himachal Pradesh (77.3%), it lags behind. Concerning UR in higher-educated youth, Punjab (25.2%), Rajasthan (38.6%), Uttar Pradesh (30.5%), and Himachal Pradesh (28.8%) also face high unemployment rates. While Haryana’s UR (27.6%) may be somewhat justified in comparison, it remains notably high.

Fig. 4

Unemployment and Education levels: Haryana (15-29 years age)

Source: Calculations from PLFS unit level data.

In the age category of 15 years and above, the Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR), Worker Population Ratio (WPR), and Unemployment Rate (UR) were reported as 58.4%, 51.4%, and 12.0%, respectively. Notably, LFPR and WPR were higher in this category than in the youth category, whereas the UR for individuals aged 15 years and above (12.0%) was less than half of that observed in the youth category (27.6%). Males in this age group reported LFPR and WPR as 79.2% and 70.7%, respectively, while females reported LFPR and WPR at 30.3% and 25.3%, indicating a significant disparity between the LFPR and WPR of males and females. Overall, the LFPR of women is considerably lower than that of males across all education levels. Regarding UR, it was higher for females (16.4%) than for males (10.8%) among higher-educated workers. However, the UR of youth (27.6%) was more than twice that of individuals in the 15 years and above age category (12.0%). Interestingly, the LFPR of youth was lower than that of the 15 years and above age category.

Consequently, the unemployment rate is higher among youth compared to other age categories, and there is a direct correlation between the level of education and the extent of unemployment. Gender-wise statistics indicate that the unemployment rate is consistently higher among females than males across different education levels. Region-wise statistics reveal that the unemployment rate is higher in rural than in urban regions across various education levels. However, higher education leads to increased unemployment among Haryana’s youth, attributed to factors such as the scarcity of quality jobs, the prolonged duration of job searches, and the high cost of migration. Nevertheless, the unemployment rate in Haryana is comparatively higher than in neighbouring states.