Interpersonal communication as a process

Communication is a process studied in an interdisciplinary manner, as it is one of the components of human existence. There are many definitions in the literature. It is also worth emphasizing that this is one of the oldest processes taking place in societies, and without it civilizations would not be able to exist today.

After 1950, Georg Miller was the first to devote a monograph to this issue in his work Language and Communication (G. Miller, 1951).

Manypublicationsoninterpersonal communication from a pedagogical perspective have been made by Marian Snieżyński, who considers speaking, non-verbal symbols and signs, and listening as its basis (Snieżyński, 2011). According to Dobek-Ostrowska (1999), the purpose of communication should be to enable people to share their knowledge and to exchange information. The author defines communication as interpersonal communication and points out that it is an interactive process, so for it to be possible, there must be at least two people interacting. The result of such a process is feedback, manifested in verbal and non-verbal signals. Dobek-Ostrowska also draws attention to the two-way nature of communication, in which the sender and receiver constantly exchange places during the dialogue. When one person takes over most or even all of the message and enters into an apparent monologue, the recipient reacts to the information received non-verbally, thus showing his or her emotions or thoughts, such as surprise, anger or irritation. Non-verbal communication is thus a kind of reinforcement and complement to the verbal part of the message being transmitted or received (Dobek-Ostrowska, 1999).

In pedagogical literature, authors often emphasise that communication relates to society and is intended to create a mutual interpersonal system (Sztejnberg, 2006). It is the transmission of information from point A to point B (Nęcki, 1996). Communication is a purposeful as well as a conscious process (Sobkowiak, 1997). Wincenty Okoń (2003) emphasises that for optimal interpersonal communication, an atmosphere of understanding, trust and acceptance from both sides (sender and receiver), which can be called open communication, is essential. Thanks to this, relationships between individuals have a chance to strengthen.

Analysing the above statements, one notes the relationship between verbal (verbal, auditory) and non-verbal communication, which, even if they are not clearly distinguished, usually coexist. In breaking down the act of interpersonal communication, it is worth paying particular attention to the non-verbal way in which emotions or information are conveyed, which is often overlooked due to modern information channels linked to the latest technologies. Communicating via text message, chat, email or instant messaging (e.g. Messenger) can make non- verbal communication, an integral part of face- to-face conversations, much more difficult, if not impossible.

Non-verbal communication

The need for the study of non-verbal expression, was noted in scientific research in linguistics in the 20th century by, among others, Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Sapir (Antas, 2023), who argued that every person uses patterns of non-verbal behaviour that are common to all people, but cannot explain them. Psychologists, educators and sociologists also began to conduct research on non-verbal communication.

In the face of today’s pedagogical challenges, also linked to new forms of communication using the latest technology, the introduction of parent- teacher conversations using instant messaging, non-verbal communication may seem less important. However, it should be remembered that in the student-teacher relationship, it is non- verbal communication that complements the act of communication, or its entirety.

In his definition of non-verbal communication, psychologist Waldemar Domachowski explains that it is a transmission that takes place through the senses, using their natural qualities, so that the information conveyed in the act of non- verbal communication does not require a typical elaboration beforehand (Osika, 2008, after: Domachowski, 1993).

Non-verbal communication can also be understood as a process in which individuals show their attitudes, experiences or feelings through their intentional or unintentional actions, the purpose of which is to convey a message, an attempt to self-regulate or control others or the environment (Hickson, Stacks, 1985). Non-verbal communication is, in the above view, a means of conveying attitudes, also communicating emotions and experiences. This underlines the functional nature of the above definition (Osika, 2008).

Messages conveyed through non-verbal codes differ from those conveyed verbally, although both are categorised as expressive and interpretive forms of dialogue (Grove, 2002).

There are several divisions of the non-verbal act of communication in the literature. Each reveals a slightly different element of the issue under discussion.

They can be considered in terms of their close correlation with the verbal act, understanding non-verbal contact as specification, or the main message that is further specified by verbal communication, as Stączek outlines in his publication. The author suggests structuring non-verbal communication using a mind map. He distinguishes aspects such as the expression of emotions, ordering and emphasising statements, managing the course of a meeting and replacing words with non-verbal information (Stączek, 2011).

Non-verbal communication thus relies on conveying the emotions and feelings of the sender and receiver of the message, allows for a more accurate interpretation of the content, as well as creating an atmosphere that is largely dependent on the emotions of the people in conversation.

Different divisions of the function of non- verbal communication in relation to interpersonal relationships have also been distinguished. One of these is as follows (Nęcki, 1996): affiliation signals, trust signals, signals of dominance and advantage, signals of threat and readiness to fight, signals of sexual arousal, excessive emotional arousal, signals of deepening or shallowing interpersonal contacts, and signals of positive or negative reinforcement. Each of the above categories is assigned characteristic gestures, facial expressions, smile or lack thereof, eye contact and glances, body posture, tone of voice, but this division should not be taken too literally.

Non-verbal messages can therefore be classified in terms of their use in a given situation, and a facial expression, gesture or body posture can be attributed to a specific signal and therefore, in a sense, to a system of signs.

In his considerations, Knapp lists the following functions of non-verbal communication: repetition, negation, substitutions, complements, conversation regulators, and emphasises that they are closely related to verbal communication (Knapp, Hall, Horgan 2013).

Ekman and Frisen proposed a division of non- verbal communication functions into emblems, illustrators, regulators, manipulators, adaptors (Ekman, 1997).

Non-verbal communication in the educational space

Currently, there are approximately 230,000 references to non-verbal communication on the Internet, but when it comes to records relating to scientific research, there are far fewer. One of the most recent publications in this field is the article Non-verbal communication in academic didactics (Pstrąg, Kraśnicka, 2023), which addresses the discussed aspect in relation to the lecturer and the student. Other publications are slightly older.

There are many requirements and expectations for a modern teacher. Although they are in line with the development of new technologies and the science of education, there is some dissonance. A teacher, as a mentor, but also as a friend, coach, authority or leader. In order to properly teach, educate and care for students, non-verbal communication is essential.

An attempt to interpret the non-verbal channel in relation to the educational environment was made by E. Thiel (1997), among others. He pointed out that the teacher’s communication with his or her students is vital, and that the teacher only transmits facts verbally. On the other hand, attitude, mood, feelings, the so-called image of the soul, are transmitted through the non-verbal channel. As the child forms his or her perceptions of the educator, it is facial expressions, eye contact or pantomimic expressions, which are categorised as non-verbal communication, that project the end result of the student’s thoughts (Snieżyński, 1990).

Non-verbal communication therefore determines the perception of the teacher and the perception of him or her as positive or negative, passionate or bored, trustworthy or someone to whom it is better not to confide.

Gil G. Noam and Nina Fiore advocate a school where there should be an atmosphere of acceptance, respect and attachment between students and teachers, which should result in higher educational and learning outcomes. A teacher who shows concern for students is perceived more favourably than the rest of the teaching staff. A proper relationship, based on positive communication between the teacher and the students, promotes the correct creation of the student’s identity and the acquisition and optimisation of social competences. When a student is in a difficult situation due to an emotional or socio-economic background, a positive relationship with the educator becomes particularly important. To achieve this, verbal and non-verbal communication is essential (Noam, Fiore, 2004).

The teacher’s workshop regarding non-verbal acts of communication

The need for optimal behaviour when it comes to non-verbal teacher-student, teacher-parent or teacher-teacher communication is noted by many educators. In their publications, they emphasize the elements of non-verbal communication and the need to skilfully adapt non-verbal acts to the student or group of students, while maintaining their subjectivity and individuality. Knowledge of both psychological and pedagogical theory and practice is necessary to acquire and improve these competences.

Non-verbal communication, particularly in educational settings, includes, among others, the following components (Puppel, 2015, after: Knapp and Hall, 1997; Malandro et al., 1989):

All of these elements determine the student’s perception of the teacher and determine not only the relationship between them, but also have an impact on the atmosphere in the classroom environment or motivation to learn. A teacher’s attire should therefore not only express his or her personality and character, but also emphasise the importance of the profession, not be provocative, be neat and comfortable in order to explore the world with the students.

Richmond points out that teachers who use gestures in non-verbal communication that indicate their openness, e.g. shortening the distance with students to about one metre, turning their heads towards their students for most of the class period, maintaining eye contact, are classified as more effective than teachers who display low directness in their interactions with students. Moreover, open-minded educators are perceived by students as more empathetic, authentic and friendly towards mutual relationships (Richmond, 2002).

A similar view is presented by Chesbero and McCroskey, who, on the basis of empirical research, conclude that the skilful use of non- verbal codes contributes to the optimisation of the learning process and its effectiveness (Chesbero, McCroskey, 2001). With positive non- verbal communication, teachers create signals that enable them to be perceived as trustworthy (Wawrzyniak-Beszterda, 2002).

A model of teacher behaviour was also developed, which indicates his/her non-verbal directness and is recommended to maintain credibility. According to this pattern, it is worthwhile for the teacher to maintain eye contact with the students on a frequent basis. Another aspect is appropriate clothing and physical appearance, which should meet the expectations of the students and helps to perceive the educator as a more competent person. It is important to keep the verbal and non-verbal message consistent, avoiding looking down and a forced, insincere smile. The next element is to control the gaze so that it is not too distracted and to manage tension skilfully so that it is not perceived by the students (McCroskey, Sallinen, Fayer, Richmond, Barraclough, 1996).

Marczewska adds that in the teacher’s non-verbal code in relation to their physical appearance, attention is also paid to personal hygiene and make-up (Marczewska, 2009).

Self-confidence, which should include honesty, openness and assertiveness, according to Cooper and Simonds, is manifested in the following teacher behaviours: eye contact with the student, more frequent when talking to the student than when listening to him, limiting hesitation when answering. The teacher’s shrunken or closed posture, lowered head or hunched body, as well as visible tension indicate a lack of self-confidence, and a delicate, quiet voice indicates a lack of assertiveness (Cooper, Simonds, 2003).

If a teacher is not aware of the body position he or she adopts when communicating with students, does not pay attention to the gestures made correlating with the verbal message and these are contradictory, this may affect the students’ negative perception of the teacher and their negative reactions. Students are able to sense indifference or lack of interest on the part of the teacher in the subject under discussion in non-verbal communication, despite his verbal messages containing different content (Rymarz, 1997).

The teachers’ body language can be an indicator of specific personality traits of a given educator. Its proper shaping results largely from the teacher’s personality and emotional attitude towards students (Strychalska-Gać, 2005).

Review of selected research findings to date on non-verbal communication in 21st century education in Poland

One of the people who has conducted the most research in the 21st century on the issue of non-verbal communication in education is Anna Pawiak. At the beginning, she emphasizes the need to train the teacher’s non-verbal communication skills with students. She points out the need to train non-verbal communication of future teachers during their studies and during in-service training courses. She also observes that in the literature there is more emphasis on verbal communication, and yet it is non-verbal codes that predominate in the interpretation of all interpersonal communication (Pawiak, 2005). In 2006, Pawiak conducted empirical research on the school classroom as a place of influence of the teacher’s non-verbal messages when working with students (Pawiak, 2006). The author emphasizes how important non-verbal communication is in the educational process, as it can disrupt or improve the course of classes. It also contributes to the classroom atmosphere and influences the emotions and feelings present there. Moreover, non-verbal communication contributes to conscious and conflict-free communication with students, which deserves special attention in relation to the aggression that is growing in society today.

Pawiak then published an article entitled Relationship conflict and non-verbal communication between teachers and students (Pawiak, 2007). Through her own empirical research, she discovered that teachers are aware of the influence on students through non-verbal messages, but their skills in this area need to be improved and updated. Non-verbal codes carry an emotional charge, so teachers should use them in a conflict-free and thoughtful way. Based on the analysis of her scientific research, the author assumes that a modern teacher should ensure better preparation for the profession, also in the field of non-verbal communication skills.

Pawiak extended her research on the issue in question by publishing the article Non- verbal communication in the scope of communication competences of a modern teacher in 2010 (Pawiak, 2010). She highlighted the need to be a teacher aware of the power and possibilities of non-verbal communication. In Pawiak’s view, a good teacher is one who influences the correct behaviour of the students by means of optimally used non-verbal codes. Students, on the other hand, according to the author’s empirical research, accurately assess a teacher’s character and qualities based on their body language (Pawiak, 2010). In her research work, the author focused on primary school teachers and students.

Educator Beata Sufa has published a dissertation entirely devoted to Non-verbal communication. On communication between teachers and students in early childhood education (Sufa, 2008). It is an extensive work based on the literature on the subject and empirical research in primary school classrooms. Sufa emphasises the importance of mutual understanding and co- operation in the teacher-student relationship.

The results of a study on the communicative competence of pre-school teachers were presented by Paulina Zalewska in 2012. They show that the teachers surveyed agree on the value of non- verbal messages to help shape a child’s emotional intelligence, provide information about another person’s emotional states, and help motivate learning and play. Non-verbal messages directed at the pupils allow them to understand that they have done something wrong, earlier than the teacher gives verbal feedback (Zalewska, 2012).

In 2013 Wiesław Sikorski published an article Non-verbal directness in the creation of teacher attitude as a non-specific factor in pedagogical interactions (Sikorski,2013). The author discusses non-verbal directness, teacher credibility and confidence, arousing sympathy, empathy, interpersonal attractiveness, the teacher’s use of rules, physical appearance and voice signals. These aspects are all contained in non-verbal communication. Sikorski emphasizes that empathy and trustworthiness are more important in a teacher’s relationship with a student than self-confidence and outward appearance, and that non-verbal communication has a significant impact on making an impression on students, which is noticed already in the first moments of classes. Students are able to recognise non-verbal messages from the teacher in more detail at the beginning of the class (Sikorski, 2013; Brophy, 2002). Sikorski also draws attention to the layout of the desks in the classroom and points out that the places that students occupy are correlated with social communication and its quality in relation to the teacher (Sikorski, 2009).

In 2016, Anna Jurczak discussed the issue of teachers’ non-verbal communication and contemporary teacher education. Summarizing her considerations, she emphasizes that when communicating, recipients often unconsciously pay attention to the non-verbal code, which complements the verbal code. Students, therefore, feel more or less motivated to act through non-verbal messages during their education. To optimise communication, both planes of communication should be adapted to the students’ intellectual capacity. Non-verbal inadequacy contributes to conflicts in the teacher-student relationship. The early childhood and pre-school teacher should consider non-verbal code as a certain aid in the interpersonal communication process. For this to happen, it is also important to remember that the facial expressions and gestures transmitted from students also betray their moods and emotions. The non-verbal channel allows to notice warnings of conflict situations in the relationship between teacher and students (Jurczak, 2016; Welskop, 2013). Jurczak states that non-verbal communication forms a specific basis for the teaching and educational process, which determines effectiveness and arousing interest among students during classes.

Joanna Jachimowicz refers to aspects of non-verbal communication in Communication of primary school teachers with students in the school education process (Jachimowicz, 2018). Referring to non-verbal communication, she points to the value of the books by David Lambert, who has classified over a hundred meanings of non-verbal codes, including gestures, facial expressions and body postures, describing them in relation to emotions and meanings in a cultural context. Jachimowicz also emphasises, following Władysław Garstka, that when considering non- verbal communication in education, the role of social distance should also be taken into account. Therefore, there is a public sphere in which the teacher is behind his/her desk. Then the social sphere - the teacher stands at the front desks, next is the personal sphere - the teacher moves throughout the classroom. There is also an intimate sphere in which the teacher approaches each student and a sub-sphere – establishing tactile contact (Garstka, 1999). None of these spheres should be considered more important, or the only one used during class.

Conclusions

Non-verbal communication is an integral component of education and upbringing. In a modern school, where more and more acts of aggression, violence and misunderstanding are observed, and in the face of the growing tendency of students to suffer from depression and depressive episodes, it is worth paying attention to the emotional charge conveyed within the walls of the school by teachers. A review of the selected literature shows that teachers recognise the important role of non-verbal acts, but that competences in this area require continuous improvement to optimise education in primary schools. It is therefore worthwhile for current and future educators to explore the topic of interpersonal communication, taking into account the nature of non-verbal acts.